BP says no more oil going into Gulf

source: Associated Press

NEW ORLEANS (AP) — BP says oil has stopped leaking into the Gulf for the first time since April.

BP has been slowly dialing down the flow as part of a test on a new cap. Engineers are now monitoring the pressure to see if the busted well holds.

THIS IS A BREAKING NEWS UPDATE. Check back soon for further information. AP’s earlier story is below.

NEW ORLEANS (AP) — BP engineers were back to the slow work of trying to choke the Gulf of Mexico oil gusher Thursday with an untested cap, slowly dialing down the flow.

The latest step — just like other developments in the monthslong environmental crisis will take several hours to complete. If it works, BP believes no oil will be leaking into the water for the first time.

Engineers got to work after replacing a leaky pipe. Kent Wells, a BP PLC vice president, said at a news briefing in Houston that the leak was found on the side of the towering, 75-ton capping stack and it was fixed by replacing the assembly, called a “choke line.”

The work sent the oil giant back to restarting preparations for testing whether the cap can stop the oil without blowing a new leak in the well. If it works, the cap will be a temporary fix until BP can drill into the gusher to plug it for good from underground, where the seal will hold better.

“Bear with us,” Wells said.

With the disaster nearly three months old, the man in charge of the $20 billion fund set up by BP to pay individuals and business for their losses said it will start making payments in early August.

Ken Feinberg, who was in charge of the compensation paid to families of victims in the Sept. 11 terrorists attacks, told a meeting of government officials in Louisiana that he expected a seamless transition from BP management of claims to his administration.

On the Gulf seabed, the leak was discovered after two of the three valves on the cap that can open or shut the device had been closed, bringing BP and government scientists, who are also watching, tantalizingly close to starting a 48-hour test of how the well and cap withstand the pressure.

Wells had warned that the process of getting ready and then choking the oil a mile below the sea, at a depth only submarine robots can reach, consisted of many precise, individual steps.

“Any one of these steps can take longer than anticipated,” Wells said Wednesday, before the leak disrupted work.

Retired Coast Guard Adm. Thad Allen, the Obama administration’s point man on the disaster, said at a briefing it’s not clear yet whether the cap, which was mounted on the well Monday, will ultimately be used to shut in the oil or to channel it through pipes to collection ships overhead.

“I have a high degree of confidence we can substantially decrease the oil coming into the environment,” Allen said.

The cap remains a temporary fix, he said, until one of two relief wells BP is drilling can reach the gusher underground and plug it permanently with heavy drilling mud and cement.

“Make no mistake, the number one goal is to kill the well … to stop it at the source,” he said.

The test will involve closing off all three openings in the cap to the Gulf, in theory stopping the oil leaking into the Gulf. BP will be monitoring pressure under the cap. High pressure is good, because it shows there’s only a single leak. Low pressure, below 6,000 pounds per square inch or so, could mean more leaks farther down in the well.

BP expects to keep the oil trapped in the cap for 48 hours before it decides if the approach is working.

With the leaking pipe replaced, BP had to start from a few steps back to resume preparations for the test.

Preparations included letting more oil pour out of the cap temporarily and turning off a pipe that had been sending some of the oil to a collection ship, so that the full force of all the erupting crude would go into the cap. Engineers also had to recheck equipment and move undersea robots that perform the work back into position.

Wells was hesitant to give a firm timeframe for when the test could start, but expected it to be Thursday.

“We’re going to keep moving forward with this,” Wells said.

Allen said a committee of scientists and engineers will monitor the results and assess every six hours, and end the test after 48 hours to evaluate the findings.

“I was gung-ho for this test and I remain gung-ho for this test,” he said Wednesday.

If the cap works, it will enable BP to stop the oil from gushing into the sea, either by holding all the oil inside the well machinery like a stopper or, if the pressure is too great, channeling some through lines to as many as four collection ships.

Allen said the testing will also help prepare for the hoped-for permanent fix by the relief wells. The mapping of the sea floor that was done to prepare for the cap test and the pressure readings will also help them determine how much mud and cement will be needed to seal off the well underground.

Drill work was stopped on one relief well because it was not clear what effect the testing of the cap could have on it. Work on the other relief well had already been stopped according to plan.

The government estimates 1.5 million to 2.5 million gallons are leaking every day.

As of Thursday, the 86th day of the disaster, between 93.5 million and 184.3 million gallons of oil had spewed into the Gulf since the Deepwater Horizon rig leased by BP exploded April 20, killing 11 workers.

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Apa yang Sudah Saya Lakukan untuk Lingkungan?

Sekedar evaluasi pribadi dan mungkin bisa dijadikan masukan untuk pembaca.

Di RUMAH

– Membuat biopori untuk menampung air hujan menjadi air resapan

–  Tidak menggunakan AC dan memaksimalkan ventilasi dan sirkulasi udara

– Menggunakan popok kain untuk bayi

– Memperbaiki keran yang bocor

– Mematikan alat elektronik yang tidak digunakan

Di KANTOR

– Menghemat penggunaan kertas dan memanfaatkan kertas bekas

– Mengecilkan AC

– Mengurangi penggunaan lampu di siang hari dengan memanfaatkan sinar matahari dari jendela

Yang masih bisa dilakukan:

Di RUMAH

1. Membuat sumur resapan

2. Menggunakan deterjen ramah lingkungan

3. Menggunakan solar cell untuk kebutuhan  listrik di rumah

Quality Control Laboratorium : Basic Sediment and Water

Jurnal 24 APril 2010

Hari ini kami mengikuti pekerjaan di Quality Control Laboratorium. bermain-main sambil belajar dengan alat uji sampel sentrifugal untuk mendapatkan presentase kandungan air dan partikel2 sedimen tanah dalam minyak mentah yang kami terima dari platform proses-produksi. istilah presentase kandungan air & sedimen yang terkandung dalam minyak mentah itu dikenal dengan BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water; orang2 biasanya menyebutnya be-es-dabel-yu). pengukuran ini berguna untuk memastikan kemurnian minyak mentah yang kita kirim ke tanker pembeli. tanker pembeli hanya mau menerima minyak mentah dengan nilai BS&W yang sangat kecil, bahkan kalo bisa mencapai nol persen (0 %), atau kita sebut dengan istilah “trace”. pada umumnya, tanker pembeli memiliki toleransi untuk hanya menerima minyak mentah dengan nilai BS&W yang kurang dari 0.2%.

langkah2 untuk mendapatkan nilai presentase BS&W sebenernya sangat sederhana, dan sekilas serupa kayak bikin minuman sirup. berikut langkah2nya:
1. pertama-tama, ambil sampel minyak mentah yang akan diuji ke delam centrifuge tube sehingga memenuhi hingga 50% kapasitasnya.
2. masukkan larutan toluen ke dalam centrigu tube tersebut sehingga memenuhi 100% kapasitasnya. dalam hal ini, toluen berfungsi sebagai pelarut sehingga sampel minyak mentah menjadi lebih encer & homogen sehingga lebih mudah untuk dipisah-pisahkan ketika dilakukan sentrifugasi.
secara fisik, lauran toluen mirip seperti air jernih karena tidak berwarna. namun demikian penanganan terhadap larutan tolune harus ekstra hati-hati, karena selain baunya yang sangat menyengat (termasuk dalam senyawa hidrokarbon aromatik), bikin ngantuk, sensasi melayang, halusinasi, kelelahan dan bikin pusing, dan juga mudah terbakar, toluen ini juga bisa menyebabkan kerusakan kulit dan organ (terutama alat reproduksi) apabila kita terpapar dalam waktu lama ataupun berulang-ulang. toluen yang kita hirup atau masuk melaui kulit, juga bisa terakumulasi dalam hati, ginjal, otak dan darah. oleh karenanya, dalam mengerjakan ini, kami diharuskan mengenakan sarung tangan bahan kimia yang terbuat dari karet PVC, mengenakan safety goggles dan juga mengenakan masker khusus untuk gas & uap toluen.
3. tambahkan 3 tetes larutan F-46 demulsifier ke dalamnya. dalam hal ini, F-46 demulsifier berfungsi larutan pemecah emulsi antara air dan minyak mentah.
4. masukkan centrifuge tube ke dalam alat pemanas hingga temperaturnya mencapai 140° F (60° C). selama proses pemanasan tersebut, centrifuge tube direndam dalam larutan oli tipe Turalix-52. pemanasan ini berfungsi agar larutan2 yang sudah ditambahkan dapat bereaksi secara efektif.
5. setelah temperatur yang diinginkan tercapai, segera pindahkan centrifuge tube ke dalam alat pemutar sentrifugal selama 5 menit. dalam alat tersebut, cetrifuge tube akan diputar dengan kecepatan hingga 1725 rpm. kecepatan ini kurang lebih sebanding dengan kecepatan putar mesin mobil di persneling (gear) gigi dua.
6. setelah 5 menit, maka akan kita dapati bahwa minyak dan partikel2 sedimen tanah telah terpisah ikatannya dengan minyak mentah dan telah berkumpul di dasar centrifuge tube. angka BS&W didapat dari pembacaan skala prosentase yang terdapat di pinggir centrifuge tube. demikianlah…

Penggunaan AC yang Hemat Energi

Sumber: http://www.greenlifestyle.or.id/tips/detail/tips_hemat_penggunaan_ac

Faktanya, lebih dari 50% konsumsi energi listrik di rumah adalah untuk alat penyejuk udara, atau air conditioner (AC). Di kantor, angka ini naik hingga 70%. Sementara, saat ini pemadaman listrik terjadi secara rutin.

Solusinya? Dengan mengurangi penggunaan AC kita tidak hanya bisa menghemat uang, listrik dan memperpanjang umur AC, namun juga ikut membantu agar listrik tidak ‘byar-pet’ terus. Siapa takut?

Kita mulai dari awal.Sebenarnya, apakah kita memang memerlukan AC ini? Kan, solusi yang paling hemat dan ramah lingkungan adalah untuk simpanatau jual ACnya dan buka lebar-lebar jendela kita untuk menikmati AC alam. Kan, fungsi AC adalah untuk menyejukkan ruangan bukan untuk mendinginkan atau apalagi membuat orang beku.

Realitanya, jaman sekarang ini sudah sulit untuk tinggal di rumah di daerah perkotaan yang dibangun dengan menggunakan ventilasi alami, tanpa AC. Seringkali kita terpaksa menggunakan AC karena tidak tahan akan panasnya udara. Untungnya, banyak sekali langkah yang dapat kita terapkan untuk menghemat penggunaan AC.

Begini caranya:

• Pilih AC hemat energi
  AC harus mampu menyejukkan ruangan secara cepat. Dengan ukuran evaporator pendingin dan kipas yang lebih besar, maka akan lebih cepat mendinginkan ruangan secara alami dan seimbang.

  >> Cari AC hemat energi
  >> Bagai memilih alat AC yang hemat energi

• Pilih AC dengan freon yang ramah lingkungan
  Freon adalah bahan cair yang menghasilkan dingin dalam ACnya. Pilih AC dengan freon yang ramah lingkungan, seperti freon hidrokarbon.
• Tentukan Kapasitas AC (PK)
  Sering terjadi, konsumen membeli AC dengan kapasitas (PK) yang lebih besar dari kebutuhanya, sehingga tidak efisien dan boros energi. Alhasil, tagihanya naik terruusssss! Maka, pilih kapasitas AC yang tepat, dengan acuan kapasitas berkisar antara 600 BTU/jam/m².
• Pakai timer agar AC beroperasi hanya pada saat dibutuhkan
  Gimana rasanya saat bangun pagi dalam ruangan yang super dingin sebab AC menyala terus semalaman? Badan pasti terasa gak enak kan?

  AC tidak perlu dipakai sepanjang kita tidur. Sebaiknya hidupkan AC seperempat jam sebelum saat tidur, dan timernya di set selama 1-2 jam mati otomatis. Kalau ACnya sudah mati, ruangnya akan tetap dingin selama beberapa jam kemudian. Untuk siang hari, usahakan mematikan AC, jika akan meninggalkan ruangan dalam waktu relatif lama.

• Atur suhu AC dengan thermostat
  Untuk aktivitas sehari-hari, atur suhu AC yang paling optimal dari sisi kenyamanan dan pemakaian energi (tidak lebih dingin dari 25 °C), yaitu 3-5°C lebih rendah dari suhu di luar ruangan) . Ingat: setiap kenaikan temperatur 1°C dapat menurunkan konsumsi energi sebesar 3-5% (BPPT). Lumayan!
• Bersihkan filter AC, coil kondensor dan sirip AC secara teratur, tiap 3 bulan
  Dengan memelihara AC secara rutin, kamu mampu menghemat listrik sampai dengan 20%. Energi yang dikonsumsi peralatan pendingin akan lebih rendah 10% pada kondensor yang tidak terkena sinar matahari secara langsung. Terganggunya sirkulasi udara karena debu yang menumpuk, menyebabkan kondensor mengkonsumsi lebih banyak listrik.
• Gunakan penutup pada bagian ruangan yang terkena sinar matahari langsung
• Usahakan pintu, jendela dan ventilasi udara selalu tertutup saat AC menyala.
• Gunakan lampu ruangan yang memiliki temperatur kerja rendah.
• Ganti AC yang sudah tua
  Untuk alat AC yang telah berumur lebih dari 10 tahun, pemakaian energi akan lebih besar 30-50% dibandingkan dengan peralatan pendingin dengan teknologi baru.

Belum puas? Coba tips yang berikut

• gunakan lampu induksi yg tidak panas sehingga beban ac tidak terlalu berat
• pasang solar chimney
• naikin plafon, terus di bawah atap taruh material penahan panas
• rubah jendela supaya lebih lebar, maksimalkan jalusi
• warna cat tembok, kebiruan mendorong adanya feeling lebih cool daripada misalnya kuning gading
• pasang ceiling fan
• rumah dengan dinding dari kayu rasanya lebih sejuk
• jika terpaksa pakai AC, hindari menempatkan peralatan elektronik di bawah atau di dekat indoor unit…

Sumber: Iwa Garniwa, Tips hemat energy pada Tata Udara; milis Greenlifestyle

Copenhagen climate summit in disarray after ‘Danish text’ leak

Perkembangan terbaru pada Copenhagen Climate Summit 2009 mengenai bocornya  Danish Text yang sangat memihak negara maju dan mengesampingkan peran PBB dalam mengatasi permasalahan iklim global sebagaimana disampaikan dalam surat kabar The Guardian

http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/dec/08/copenhagen-climate-summit-disarray-danish-text

Developing countries react furiously to leaked draft agreement that would hand more power to rich nations, sideline the UN’s negotiating role and abandon the Kyoto protocol

The UN Copenhagen climate talks are in disarray today after developing countries reacted furiously to leaked documents that show world leaders will next week be asked to sign an agreement that hands more power to rich countries and sidelines the UN’s role in all future climate change negotiations.

The document is also being interpreted by developing countries as setting unequal limits on per capita carbon emissions for developed and developing countries in 2050; meaning that people in rich countries would be permitted to emit nearly twice as much under the proposals.

The so-called Danish text, a secret draft agreement worked on by a group of individuals known as “the circle of commitment” – but understood to include the UK, US and Denmark – has only been shown to a handful of countries since it was finalised this week.

The agreement, leaked to the Guardian, is a departure from the Kyoto protocol‘s principle that rich nations, which have emitted the bulk of the CO2, should take on firm and binding commitments to reduce greenhouse gases, while poorer nations were not compelled to act. The draft hands effective control of climate change finance to the World Bank; would abandon the Kyoto protocol – the only legally binding treaty that the world has on emissions reductions; and would make any money to help poor countries adapt to climate change dependent on them taking a range of actions.

The document was described last night by one senior diplomat as “a very dangerous document for developing countries. It is a fundamental reworking of the UN balance of obligations. It is to be superimposed without discussion on the talks”.

A confidential analysis of the text by developing countries also seen by the Guardian shows deep unease over details of the text. In particular, it is understood to:

• Force developing countries to agree to specific emission cuts and measures that were not part of the original UN agreement;

• Divide poor countries further by creating a new category of developing countries called “the most vulnerable”;

• Weaken the UN’s role in handling climate finance;

• Not allow poor countries to emit more than 1.44 tonnes of carbon per person by 2050, while allowing rich countries to emit 2.67 tonnes.

Developing countries that have seen the text are understood to be furious that it is being promoted by rich countries without their knowledge and without discussion in the negotiations.

“It is being done in secret. Clearly the intention is to get [Barack] Obama and the leaders of other rich countries to muscle it through when they arrive next week. It effectively is the end of the UN process,” said one diplomat, who asked to remain nameless.

Antonio Hill, climate policy adviser for Oxfam International, said: “This is only a draft but it highlights the risk that when the big countries come together, the small ones get hurting. On every count the emission cuts need to be scaled up. It allows too many loopholes and does not suggest anything like the 40% cuts that science is saying is needed.”

Hill continued: “It proposes a green fund to be run by a board but the big risk is that it will run by the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility [a partnership of 10 agencies including the World Bank and the UN Environment Programme] and not the UN. That would be a step backwards, and it tries to put constraints on developing countries when none were negotiated in earlier UN climate talks.”

The text was intended by Denmark and rich countries to be a working framework, which would be adapted by countries over the next week. It is particularly inflammatory because it sidelines the UN negotiating process and suggests that rich countries are desperate for world leaders to have a text to work from when they arrive next week.

Few numbers or figures are included in the text because these would be filled in later by world leaders. However, it seeks to hold temperature rises to 2C and mentions the sum of $10bn a year to help poor countries adapt to climate change from 2012-15.

Quake Basics: Learning the Quake Code

Source: http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/quake-basics-learning-the-quake-code/328034

Evakuasi melalui tangga darurat harus dilakukan dengan tenang dan tidak panik

Also in this series:
What to Do in an Earthquake
Survivors Talk About Their Quake Experiences

Wisnu Widjaja works for the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB). On Wednesday, at 2:55 p.m., the Jakarta resident was driving home from Bandung along the toll road when he thought a tire had gone flat. It was an earthquake, he realized as he pulled over.

Once Wisnu arrived home, he turned on the television for news. As someone working in the disaster management field, he realized one thing: Jakarta residents were not prepared for an earthquake.

“Most of the victims in Jakarta were injured out of their own doing,” said Wisnu, who is the director of the BNPB’s disaster risk reduction division.

He heard on the news that people had streamed out of buildings in panic and chaos, causing many injuries.“Someone broke a leg, another was severely injured during a stampede,” he said. “People were standing in the lobbies of the buildings, which is totally the wrong thing to do,” Wisnu said. “Jakarta people are not ready for an earthquake because they lack the knowledge of how do deal with it.”

Quakes like the 7.3-magnitude temblor that struck Java Island on Wednesday, killing at least 57 people and shaking buildings in the capital Jakarta, are inevitable. Indonesia’s thousands of islands are scattered along a belt of volcanic and seismic activity known as the Pacific “Ring of Fire,” which makes them especially vulnerable. Nevertheless, the risks can be substantially reduced with planning.

Fauzi, the head of the earthquake and tsunami unit of the Meteorology and Geophysics Agency (BMG), said the probability of a big quake hitting Jakarta was very low because it did not lie on a fault line, meaning it would never be at the epicenter of an earthquake.

“There is no epicenter in Jakarta,” he stressed.

Fauzi said that what people in Jakarta had felt on Wednesday were the rumblings of the quake as it spread out from the epicenter in Tasikmalaya, West Java, and their lives had probably not been in danger.

Dwi Haryadi, an officer with the disaster management division of the Indonesian Red Cross (PMI), said it was important to relax and remain calm during an earthquake.

If people panicked, others might pick up on it, he said.

“If you have time, evacuate,” he said. “If you don’t, then find a place to protect yourself.”

Wisnu of the disaster management agency said it was crucial to understand that “tremors don’t kill. What inflicts damage is falling objects.”

He said the first thing to do in a quake was to find a way to protect yourself from falling objects, but then to stay still during the tremor.

“Since the head is the most vulnerable part of our body, we need to find items that can protect it,” he said. “When you’re in a house, you can use things like a pillow, but preferably something more solid. When you’re in a building, you can hide under a table.”

People should also locate hazards in their surroundings, especially things that are taller than them, or in higher places, Wisnu said.

“If you’re in a house or a building, avoid things like cabinets, which might fall on you,” he said. “If you’re outside, look for things like trees, billboards, electricity poles, which could also fall.”

Wisnu said residential buildings of one or two floors generally collapsed vertically, meaning that people inside were in danger of being crushed, but people standing out in the yard or the street were likely to be safe.

Therefore, Wisnu said, leaving the house was the best measure.

He said people who were inside tall buildings at the time of a quake shouldn’t remain near the building once they had exited.

“If an earthquake is big enough, there will be things falling down from the building, like shards of glass,” he said.

“People should get as far away as they can from the building to an open space.”

Dwi from the Red Cross said that after not panicking, finding the best exit route was the most important thing.

“Sometimes when we’re in a building, we don’t know the evacuation route,” he said.

He said people should always look for the emergency exit staircase, and never go down to the ground level in an elevator.

Dwi stressed the importance of leaving the building in an orderly way. “Sometimes the process of evacuation is what causes all the injuries,” he said.

“The space is narrow, people are in a rush, they start pushing and stepping on each other.”

Wisnu said that many people overestimated the duration of earthquakes. “The duration is usually short, a matter of seconds, and not minutes,” he said.

He said that during a quake, people should not try to leave the room, but try to find protection instead. After the tremor had stopped, then people could leave the room. “There’s nothing much we can do within that time. But if we run, it will create further chaos,” Wisnu said.

Dwi said that different people had different capabilities in quakes.

There will be people who are more vulnerable and will need assistance, such as the elderly, pregnant women and small children, he said.

“People who are more capable should help those less capable,” Dwi said.

Both Dwi and Wisnu said that Indonesia had learned a lot since the Indian Ocean tsunami tragedy in 2004.

“After the 2004 tsunami, Indonesia has fared much better in terms of disaster management,” Dwi said. “There are more publications and training programs available.”

Wisnu, however, said that more progress was still necessary.

“The problem is that people only care when a disaster happens,” he said. “After a while, they just get blase and forget about it.”

Tempat Sampah Dipilah

Pemilahan Sampah Harus dimulai dari hulu-nya, untuk itu tempat pembuangan sampah yang dipilah seperti ini harus segera disebarluaskan dan ditempatkan di fasilitas umum strategis; banyak orang membuang sampah. Bukan sekedar titik keramaian dimana tempat sampah bisa 'dilihat' oleh banyak orang

Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus

Source: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm

This fact sheet provides general information about avian influenza (bird flu) and information about one type of bird flu, called avian influenza A (H5N1), that has caused infections in birds and in humans. Also see Questions and Answers on the CDC website and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on the World Health Organization (WHO) website.

Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)

Avian influenza in birds

Avian influenza is an infection caused by avian (bird) influenza (flu) viruses. These influenza viruses occur naturally among birds. Wild birds worldwide carry the viruses in their intestines, but usually do not get sick from them. However, avian influenza is very contagious among birds and can make some domesticated birds, including chickens, ducks, and turkeys, very sick and kill them.

Infected birds shed influenza virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Susceptible birds become infected when they have contact with contaminated secretions or excretions or with surfaces that are contaminated with secretions or excretions from infected birds. Domesticated birds may become infected with avian influenza virus through direct contact with infected waterfowl or other infected poultry, or through contact with surfaces (such as dirt or cages) or materials (such as water or feed) that have been contaminated with the virus.

Infection with avian influenza viruses in domestic poultry causes two main forms of disease that are distinguished by low and high extremes of virulence. The “low pathogenic” form may go undetected and usually causes only mild symptoms (such as ruffled feathers and a drop in egg production). However, the highly pathogenic form spreads more rapidly through flocks of poultry. This form may cause disease that affects multiple internal organs and has a mortality rate that can reach 90-100% often within 48 hours.

Human infection with avian influenza viruses

There are many different subtypes of type A influenza viruses. These subtypes differ because of changes in certain proteins on the surface of the influenza A virus (hemagglutinin [HA] and neuraminidase [NA] proteins). There are 16 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes of influenza A viruses. Many different combinations of HA and NA proteins are possible. Each combination represents a different subtype. All known subtypes of influenza A viruses can be found in birds.

Usually, “avian influenza virus” refers to influenza A viruses found chiefly in birds, but infections with these viruses can occur in humans. The risk from avian influenza is generally low to most people, because the viruses do not usually infect humans. However, confirmed cases of human infection from several subtypes of avian influenza infection have been reported since 1997. Most cases of avian influenza infection in humans have resulted from contact with infected poultry (e.g., domesticated chicken, ducks, and turkeys) or surfaces contaminated with secretion/excretions from infected birds. The spread of avian influenza viruses from one ill person to another has been reported very rarely, and has been limited, inefficient and unsustained.

“Human influenza virus” usually refers to those subtypes that spread widely among humans. There are only three known A subtypes of influenza viruses (H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2) currently circulating among humans. It is likely that some genetic parts of current human influenza A viruses came from birds originally. Influenza A viruses are constantly changing, and they might adapt over time to infect and spread among humans.

During an outbreak of avian influenza among poultry, there is a possible risk to people who have contact with infected birds or surfaces that have been contaminated with secretions or excretions from infected birds.

Symptoms of avian influenza in humans have ranged from typical human influenza-like symptoms (e.g., fever, cough, sore throat, and muscle aches) to eye infections, pneumonia, severe respiratory diseases (such as acute respiratory distress), and other severe and life-threatening complications. The symptoms of avian influenza may depend on which virus caused the infection.

Studies done in laboratories suggest that some of the prescription medicines approved in the United States for human influenza viruses should work in treating avian influenza infection in humans. However, influenza viruses can become resistant to these drugs, so these medications may not always work. Additional studies are needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of these medicines.

Avian Influenza A (H5N1)

Influenza A (H5N1) virus – also called “H5N1 virus” – is an influenza A virus subtype that occurs mainly in birds, is highly contagious among birds, and can be deadly to them. H5N1 virus does not usually infect people, but infections with these viruses have occurred in humans. Most of these cases have resulted from people having direct or close contact with H5N1-infected poultry or H5N1-contaminated surfaces.

Avian influenza A (H5N1) outbreaks

For current information about avian influenza A (H5N1) outbreaks, see our Outbreaks page.

Human health risks during the H5N1 outbreak

Of the few avian influenza viruses that have crossed the species barrier to infect humans, H5N1 has caused the largest number of detected cases of severe disease and death in humans. However, it is possible that those cases in the most severely ill people are more likely to be diagnosed and reported, while milder cases go unreported. For the most current information about avian influenza and cumulative case numbers, see the World Health Organization (WHO) avian influenza website.

Of the human cases associated with the ongoing H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and wild birds in Asia and parts of Europe, the Near East and Africa, more than half of those people reported infected with the virus have died. Most cases have occurred in previously healthy children and young adults and have resulted from direct or close contact with H5N1-infected poultry or H5N1-contaminated surfaces. In general, H5N1 remains a very rare disease in people. The H5N1 virus does not infect humans easily, and if a person is infected, it is very difficult for the virus to spread to another person.

While there has been some human-to-human spread of H5N1, it has been limited, inefficient and unsustained. For example, in 2004 in Thailand, probable human-to-human spread in a family resulting from prolonged and very close contact between an ill child and her mother was reported. In June 2006, WHO reported evidence of human-to-human spread in Indonesia. In this situation, 8 people in one family were infected. The first family member is thought to have become ill through contact with infected poultry. This person then infected six family members. One of those six people (a child) then infected another family member (his father). No further spread outside of the exposed family was documented or suspected.

Nonetheless, because all influenza viruses have the ability to change, scientists are concerned that H5N1 virus one day could be able to infect humans and spread easily from one person to another. Because these viruses do not commonly infect humans, there is little or no immune protection against them in the human population. If H5N1 virus were to gain the capacity to spread easily from person to person, an influenza pandemic (worldwide outbreak of disease) could begin. For more information about influenza pandemics, see PandemicFlu.gov.

No one can predict when a pandemic might occur. However, experts from around the world are watching the H5N1 situation in Asia and Europe very closely and are preparing for the possibility that the virus may begin to spread more easily and widely from person to person.

Treatment and vaccination for H5N1 virus in humans

The H5N1 virus that has caused human illness and death in Asia is resistant to amantadine and rimantadine, two antiviral medications commonly used for influenza. Two other antiviral medications, oseltamivir and zanamivir, would probably work to treat influenza caused by H5N1 virus, but additional studies still need to be done to demonstrate their effectiveness.

For information about H5N1 vaccines, visit http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/qa.htm.

Advice on the use of masks1 in the community setting in Influenza A (H1N1) outbreaks

Advice on the use of masks1 in the community setting in

Influenza A (H1N1) outbreaks

Interim guidance (click here for pdf version)

3 May 2009

This document provides interim guidance on the use of masks in communities that have reported community-level outbreaks caused by the new Influenza A(H1N1) virus. It will be revised as more data become available.

Background

At present, evidence suggests that the main route of human-to-human transmission of the new Influenza A (H1N1) virus is via respiratory droplets, which are expelled by speaking, sneezing or coughing.

Any person who is in close contact (approximately 1 metre) with someone who has influenza-like symptoms (fever, sneezing, coughing, running nose, chills, muscle ache etc) is at risk of being exposed to potentially infective respiratory droplets.

In health-care settings, studies evaluating measures to reduce the spread of respiratory viruses suggest that the use of masks could reduce the transmission of influenza.2 Advice on the use of masks in health-care settings is accompanied by information on additional measures that may have impact on its effectiveness, such as training on correct use, regular supplies and proper disposal facilities. In the community, however, the benefits of wearing masks has not been established, especially in open areas, as opposed to enclosed spaces while in close contact with a person with influenza-like symptoms.

Nonetheless, many individuals may wish to wear masks in the home or community setting, particularly if they are in close contact with a person with influenza-like symptoms, for example while providing care to family members. Furthermore, using a mask can enable an individual with influenza-like symptoms to cover their mouth and nose to help contain respiratory droplets, a measure that is part of cough etiquette.

Using a mask incorrectly however, may actually increase the risk of transmission, rather than reduce it. If masks are to be used, this measure should be combined with other general measures to help prevent the human-to-human transmission of influenza, training on the correct use of masks and consideration of cultural and personal values.

General advice

It is important to remember that in the community setting the following general measures may be more important than wearing a mask in preventing the spread of influenza.

For individuals who are well:

Maintain distance of at least 1 metre from any individual with influenza-like symptoms, and:

• • refrain from touching mouth and nose;
• • perform hand hygiene frequently, by washing with soap and water or using an alcoholbased handrub 3 , especially if touching the mouth and nose and surfaces that are potentially contaminated;

• • reduce as much as possible the time spent in close contact with people who might be ill;
• • reduce as much as possible the time spent in crowded settings;
• • improve airflow in your living space by opening windows as much as possible.

For individuals with influenza-like symptoms:

• • stay at home if you feel unwell and follow the local public health recommendations;
• • keep distance from well individuals as much as possible (at least 1 metre);
• • cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, with tissues or other suitable materials, to contain respiratory secretions. Dispose of the material immediately after use or wash it. Clean hands immediately after contact with respiratory secretions!

• • improve airflow in your living space by opening windows as much as possible.

If masks are worn, proper use and disposal is essential to ensure they are potentially effective and to avoid any increase in risk of transmission associated with the incorrect use of masks. The following information on correct use of masks derives from the practices in health-care settings4:

• place mask carefully to cover mouth and nose and tie securely to minimise any gaps  between the face and the mask

• while in use, avoid touching the mask  −      whenever you touch a used mask, for example when removing or washing, clean hands by washing with soap and water or using an alcohol-based handrub

• replace masks with a new clean, dry mask as soon as they become damp/humid
• do not re-use single-use masks  −      discard single-use masks after each use and dispose of them immediately upon removing.

Although some alternative barriers to standard medical masks are frequently used (e.g. cloth mask, scarf, paper masks, rags tied over the nose and mouth), there is insufficient information available on their effectiveness. If such alternative barriers are used, they should only be used once or, in the case of cloth masks, should be cleaned thoroughly between each use (i.e. wash with normal household detergent at normal temperature). They should be removed immediately after caring for the ill. Hands should be washed immediately after removal of the mask.

***

Notes:

1 The term “mask” is used here to include home-made or improvised masks, dust masks and surgical masks (sometimes called

“medical masks”). Masks have several designs. They are often single use and labelled as either surgical, dental, medical procedure,

isolation, dust or laser masks. Masks frequently used outside health-care settings may also be made out of cloth, or paper or similar

material. Masks, names and standards differ among countries.

2 Jefferson T, Foxlee R, Del Mar C et al. Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses: systematic

review. BMJ 2008; 336;77-80.

3 In settings where alcohol-based hand rubs are available and the safety concerns (such as fire hazards and accidental ingestion)

are adequately addressed, their proper use (rubbing hands for 20–30 seconds) could be promoted as a means of disinfection.

4 Infection prevention and control of epidemic- and pandemic-prone acute respiratory diseases in health care WHO Interim

Guidelines (Jul 2007) available at http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/WHO_CD_EPR_2007_6/en/index.html.

Mencuci Tangan Dengan Benar

Dengan berkembanganya beraneka macam virus di lingkungan kita,  menjaga kebersihan diri adalah senjata pertama menangkal penyebaran virus. Mencuci tangan adalah langkah pertama dalam mencegah penularan virus, terutama karena tangan memiliki akses ke seluruh tubuh terutama mulut, mata dan hidung. Untuk itu, cucilah tangan dengan benar.

Berikut ini poster mencuci tangan yang disosialisasikan oleh WHO:

Protect yourself

• Clean your hands regularly.
• Wash your hands with soap and water, and dry them thoroughly.
• Use alcohol-based handrub if you don’t have immediate access to soap and water.

Washing your hands properly takes about as long as singing "Happy Birthday" twice, using the images below. (click image to download pdf version)